SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Stes de Necker

Scientific research is the systematic investigation of scientific theories and hypotheses.

"Scientific Research" means that an investigation is carried out to illuminate or solve a problem in a manner that the information gained will be valid. This is done by constructing the study in such a way that extraneous data is either excluded or controlled or accounted for. One test of the results of scientific research is for someone else to perform the same research (preferably in a different way) and get the same result. In other words, do determine a set of facts that will hold true under any and/all conditions.

There is a general misunderstanding about just what constitutes a scientific theory. The word "theory" has several meanings. The common meaning used by the general public is that of a "guess" or "opinion." You could say, "It is my theory that the CIA ordered Kennedy's assassination." or "It is my guess/opinion that the CIA ordered Kennedy's assassination." It is important to point out here that a scientific theory is not a guess or opinion, as the word theory is used by the general public.

A scientific theory is an overall unifying principal that seeks to explain seemingly disconnected phenomena under a single, simple concept. As such, a theory is the highest form of knowledge about the universe because it explains not just one isolated part of the natural world but it ties together observations that may not seem to be connected under a single unifying principle. 

In science, the term “Law” usually refers to a generalization from experimental data and is a succinct way of describing what we'd expect to happen in a particular situation. A law in science is usually reserved for use in situations that have quantifiable predictions. The word law is sometimes used casually to denote a theory that has had unusually thorough verification. However, there are NO theories that are above further investigation, study and additional verification and modification or rejection if necessary. 

Science has absolutely no aim, goal, agenda or hidden program beyond- "to know."

Science is the careful, quantitative examination of a reproducible phenomenon.

If you cannot study it, measure it, analyze it - it is not science.

Just making a statement is not science.

Using words like "it could" or "it is reasonable to assume" or "obviously" and many, many more are not science.

That doesn't mean there are always pure motives exhibited by the people who populate science- because science, like all human activity, is conducted by mere mortals who are fallible.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a single assertion, a proposed explanation of something based on available knowledge, for something yet to be explained. One that is subject to further experimentation.

In science, the people who create such hypotheses are researchers. Most researchers work for companies or academic institutions. Many of them, but not all, have a PhD in an appropriate field related to their research. For example, a person conducting research on a new drug may have a PhD in chemistry - a PhD in history probably wouldn't do much good.

The Scientific Method

True scientists don't just come up with explanations about the world around us willy-nilly. Not even close. Scientists use the scientific method, a process that helps construct an accurate depiction of our universe and its processes, in order to answer whatever question they may have!

What this means is, researchers observe the world around them, formulate potential explanations for the phenomena they observe, test their hypotheses out with experiments, and analyze their results to see if they were right or wrong.

The key thing about the scientific method is that it carries no prejudice, meaning you don't even have to believe whatever it is the researcher wrote or said! Using the scientific method, you can repeat the experiment to find out for yourself whether or not the other researcher's assertions are true. This is a key factor that separates science from dogma!

The other important part of scientific research is that a hypothesis must be falsifiable. A falsifiable hypothesis or theory is one where an experiment or another discovery can prove it to be wrong, untrue, and false. This is another critical factor that separates science from the world of religion, astrology, and pseudoscience.

If we were to say that Bigfoot exists but always hides when humans are around and leaves no evidence behind, that, in the words of Penn and Teller, is bologna! There is no way to disprove such a statement and it is therefore unscientific.

Overall, scientific research helps people come up with rational, objective, testable, and disprovable questions and methods that help us explain the world and its ever-changing nature.

In science, you don't have to believe anything. You are free to test it out for yourself and prove or disprove anything you want in an objective and unbiased manner.

Definition of Research

In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

Reading a factual book of any sort is a kind of research. Surfing the internet or watching the news is also a type of research.

Science does not use this word in the same way, preferring to restrict it to certain narrowly defined areas. The word ‘review’ is more often used to describe the learning process which is one of the underlying tenets of the rigid structures defining scientific research.

The Scientific Definition

The strict definition of scientific research is performing a methodical study in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of any experimental process.

Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.

Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.

Any type of ‘real’ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.

The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be manipulated, although case studies and purely observational science do not always comply with this norm.

Definition of the Scientific Method

Whilst any definition of the scientific method is always a little difficult, due to the vast number of scientific disciplines and subtypes, there are a few basic fundamentals that are common to them all.

Scientific Definitions

Various dictionaries and online resources give a strict definition of the scientific method, relating the scientific process from beginning to end.

Whilst these definitions are useful, they are very narrow and lead to many of the misunderstandings where the general public believes that science is infallible, and that scientists are always right.

Here, we will try to break down some of these barriers and find a milder definition of the scientific method that is a little more 'user friendly.'

Taking some dictionary definitions:

"The principles and empirical processes of discovery and demonstration considered characteristic of or necessary for scientific investigation, generally involving the observation of phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis concerning the phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth or falseness of the hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modifies the hypothesis."

From: answers.com

"Sciences: Rigorous, systematic approach, designed to eliminate bias and other subjective influences in the search, identification, and measurement or validation of facts and cause-effect relationships, and from which scientific laws may be deduced."

From: businessdictionary.com

The definition of the scientific method, even amongst many scientists, is seen as some holy grail of science that achieves absolute and unarguable proof.

Lawyers and advertisers proudly boast about the scientific method, believing that it provides irrefutable proof. CSI: Miami shows how forensic scientists take a skin cell and extract the DNA, using their findings to convict the bad guy.

Whilst I love CSI: Miami, this definition of the scientific method is flawed, and it does not take into account how scientists actually work. Scientists are fully aware of what they are trying to achieve through their research, and are usually aware of the inbuilt inaccuracies and artefacts in their work.

The Hollywood depictions portray scientists as infallible, but this is simply not true and it never has been. Courtrooms also carry an inbuilt bias, because the burden of proof is always 'of beyond reasonable doubt.'

In science, there is no reasonable doubt, no black and white, and even the most established theory can be challenged and falsified as part of the scientific process.

The other problem with the scientific method is that many disciplines cannot follow it exactly, especially social and behavioural sciences and, most notoriously, psychology. The damage wreaked by Freud, where he claimed to know ALL of the answers, still resonates amongst modern psychology and has tarnished the image of the discipline.

Scientific Method and Pseudoscience

The definition of the scientific method is a strict protocol dictating the underlying philosophy behind scientific research.

However, people must be aware that many sciences cannot follow the scientific method exactly, due to the difficulty of defining reliability and validity.

This, more than anything, will begin to dampen down the animosity between scientists and non-scientists and also make scientists much more approachable.

Of course, when pseudoscientists boast that their latest scam is 'tested by the scientific method,' then this becomes an extremely difficult process.

Steps of the Scientific Process

The steps of the scientific process has a structure similar to an hourglass - The structure starts with general questions, narrowing down to focus on one specific aspect, then designing research where we can observe and analyze this aspect. At last, the hourglass widens and the researcher concludes and generalizes the findings to the real world.

Summary of the Elements in Scientific Research

1) Setting a Goal

Research in all disciplines and subjects, not just science, must begin with a clearly defined goal. This usually, but not always, takes the form of a hypothesis.

For example, an anthropological study may not have a specific hypothesis or principle, but does have a specific goal, in studying the culture of a certain people and trying to understand and interpret their behaviour.

The whole study is designed around this clearly defined goal, and it should address a unique issue, building upon previous research and scientifically accepted fundamentals. Whilst nothing in science can be regarded as truth, basic assumptions are made at all stages of the research, building upon widely accepted knowledge.

2) Interpretation of the Results

Research does require some interpretation and extrapolation of results.

In scientific research, there is always some kind of connection between data (information gathered) and why the scientist think that the data looks as it does. Often the researcher looks at the data gathered, and then comes to a conclusion of why the data looks like it does.

A history paper, for example, which just reorganizes facts and makes no commentary on the results, is not research but a review.

If you think of it this way, somebody writing a school textbook is not performing research and is offering no new insights. They are merely documenting pre-existing data into a new format.

If the same writer interjects their personal opinion and tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis, then they are moving into the area of genuine research. Science tends to use experimentation to study and interpret a specific hypothesis or question, allowing a gradual accumulation of knowledge that slowly becomes a basic assumption.

3) Replication and Gradual Accumulation

For any study, there must be a clear procedure so that the experiment can be replicated and the results verified.

Again, there is a bit of a grey area for observation-based research, as is found in anthropology, behavioural biology and social science, but they still fit most of the other criteria.

Planning and designing the experimental method, is an important part of the project and should revolve around answering specific predictions and questions. This will allow an exact duplication and verification by independent researchers, ensuring that the results are accepted as real.

Most scientific research looks at an area and breaks it down into easily tested pieces.

The gradual experimentation upon these individual pieces will allow the larger questions to be approached and answered, breaking down a large and seemingly insurmountable problem, into manageable chunks.

True research never gives a definitive answer but encourages more research in another direction. Even if a hypothesis is disproved, that will give an answer and generate new ideas, as it is refined and developed.

Research is cyclical, with the results generated leading to new areas or a refinement of the original process.

Conclusion

The term, scientific research, is much stricter in science than in everyday life.

It revolves around using the scientific method to generate hypotheses and provide analyzable results. All scientific research has a goal and ultimate aim, repeated and refined experimentation gradually reaching an answer.

These results are a way of gradually uncovering truths and finding out about the processes that drive the universe around us. Only by having a rigid structure to experimentation, can results be verified as acceptable contributions to science.

Some other areas, such as history and economics, also perform true research, but tend to have their own structures in place for generating solid results. They also contribute to human knowledge but with different processes and systems.